A recent nation, Mauritania officially emerged in late 1899. Before discussions of Western Mauritania and independence, Mauritania has long been a crucible of ethnic diversity and civilizational exchange. Serving as a commercial bridge between the Arab world and sub-Saharan Africa, its history explains its somewhat distinctive Arab-Muslim culture.

The earliest traces of human presence in Mauritania date back approximately 600,000 years (Lower Paleolithic period). Certain tools discovered suggest the presence of nomadic Berber herders. Despite extensive research, limited evidence makes it difficult to determine much about the lifestyle of these early civilizations. Nevertheless, we can trace habitation back to around 6,000 BC.

We know that Mauritania then enjoyed a humid climate interrupted by drier periods. This relatively favorable climate attracted numerous animals: elephants, hippopotamuses, giraffes, and antelopes populated Mauritanian lands.

Around the Neolithic period (8,000 years before the common era), populations of black hunters arrived from the south, drawn by abundant game and attracted to fishing for fish and shellfish along the shores of inland lakes and the ocean. These populations may have been the ancestors of the Soninke peoples present in Mauritania and Mali. We still preserve traces of these peoples through rock paintings. With the discovery of ceramics, people gradually became sedentary, transitioning to cattle herding. Tools evolved, and around 2,000 BC, more efficient hunting weapons emerged.

The climate also changed. Drought and desert expanded northward. Men from North Africa arrived with their horses and caravans. Horses were quickly replaced by camels, far more resistant to the desert's harsh conditions.

It was at the beginning of our era that people discovered the copper mines of Akjoujt. They could then produce more efficient weapons and tools. Among ancient populations, we also find the Fulani (Peuls). Likely arriving from the east to settle south of the Sahara, the Fulani left some heritage, notably their language, still spoken today by the Toucouleurs.

With the relentless advance of the desert, populations composed of both blacks and Berbers gradually separated: blacks migrated south while Berbers preferred the north.

The Region Under Two Influences

The Ghana Empire, founded in the 4th century by Berbers, became an important territory largely thanks to trans-Saharan trade in slaves, salt, and gold. By the 8th century, southern Mauritania remained under the dominion of the Ghana Empire, which stretched from the inner Niger delta to the upper Senegal valley.

The capital of Ghana, present-day Koumbi-Saleh, is located in the southeast on current Mauritanian lands. To the north, Arab conquerors had taken Berber territories. The zone was integrated into the Maghreb, witnessing the creation of independent political entities.

Although both regions were highly active and well-organized, no contact existed between them yet. It was only later that the Almoravides (Sanhaja Berber dynasty) attempted to conquer Western Sahara and introduce Islam. Thus they became aware of the mighty Ghana Empire. Arab expeditions succeeded one another southward toward the oasis of Aoudaghost, which then flourished.

Demand for raw materials grew, and trans-Saharan trade became increasingly regular. Blacks from Ghana and Berbers met at Awdaghost, exchanging gold for copper, silver, and other artisanal products. The decline of the Ghana Empire was swift, and in 1076, the capital Koumbi Saleh fell to the Almoravides. The region previously inhabited by Sanhadja Berbers welcomed increasing numbers of Maghreb merchants, and Islam naturally took root south of the Sahara, including among sub-Saharan African populations.

Arabization and Islamization

Around 1400, Mauritania experienced a second wave of Arabization. Berber tribes fell under the Hassan tribes from Upper Egypt, imposing their language, Hassaniya, still heard today. The practice of Arab-Berber demonstrates the Arabization of the territory, yet the country proved difficult to govern under the Hassan emirates.

This led to incessant conflicts until the 19th century between various Arab and Berber tribes.

Beyond conflict, Arabs mixed with the original Berber and black populations, constituting over centuries the group today dominant in Mauritania, the Arab-Berbers or Moors. They made Chinguetti a holy city, from which pilgrimages to Mecca departed. Scientists and religious scholars visited and enriched its library, still celebrated today. The great influence of the city led to naming the country Chinguit.

The Chinguit zone would later determine the borders of Mauritania. Coveted by rivals, the Moors faced invasion threats from neighboring black kingdoms. El Hadj Omar, a war chief among the Moors, established Islam as the state religion in the 19th century. The Moors, weary of ethnic and racial conflicts, eventually yielded to the French arriving from Senegal.

The first European to set foot in Mauritania appears to have been Portuguese navigator Nuno Tristao in 1443. Landing on the Arguin Bay, the Portuguese established a trading post for gold, gum arabic, and slaves.

The island's strategic position attracted English, Dutch, and later French interest, with the French finally establishing themselves in 1664. Already settled in Senegal since 1638, the French capitalized on existing racial conflicts with the Hassan emirates, the Moors, and neighboring black tribes.

In 1905, Mauritania became a French territory and this land of nomads received defined borders. However, the R'gueïbalt and Oula Bousbah tribes resisted French rule but finally yielded in 1934. By 1936, virtually the entire territory was under French occupation.

Mauritania: An Overseas Territory?

Following the promulgation of the 4th French Constitution on October 27, 1946, Mauritania was granted the status of Overseas Territory. Horma Ould Baban, then a Mauritanian deputy, entered the French National Assembly. He would eventually go into exile in Morocco to found the National Liberation Army.

In 1955, Morocco claimed Mauritanian territory, but the Defferre Law granted the country autonomy in 1956. Conflicts erupted the following year between the French army and the National Liberation Army of former deputy Horma Ould Babana. In 1958, Mohamed V, King of Morocco, officially claimed Mauritania before Moktar Ould Daddah, then president of the provisional government, declared the independence of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania on November 28, 1960, ending all rival claims. Moktar Ould Daddah was elected first President of Mauritania a year later. The country joined the UN; Moktar Ould Dabbah was reelected in 1966, and Morocco officially recognized Mauritania in 1969. The new state was once again confirmed when Mauritania abandoned the Franc for the Ouguiya, a national currency.

From Coups d'État to Democracy

In 1975, Spain finally withdrew from Western Sahara, which was subsequently divided between Morocco and Mauritania. The new region (13th region) created then became the subject of an independence claim by the Polisario Front. It launched deadly raids throughout Mauritania, reaching the capital Nouakchott.

Meanwhile, drought afflicting the country brought additional internal strife. Herders, workers, and students protested in large numbers. Moktar Ould Daddag was eventually overthrown in a coup led by Lieutenant Colonel Mustapha Ould Saleck on July 10, 1978. Imprisoned then released after just over a year, the former President was forced into exile.

The country's new leaders quickly eased conflicts with the Polisario Front and signed a ceasefire. By signing the Algiers Agreement with the Polisario Front in August 1979, Mauritanian leaders renounced their claim to the 13th region.

Between 1978 and 1984, Mauritanian political life experienced several upheavals, including failed coup attempts. On December 12, 1984, Colonel Maaouya ould Sid Ahmed Taya, former Prime Minister and Defense Minister, took the helm following a bloodless coup. He introduced a form of democracy previously unknown in the country.

Conflict and Racial Tensions

Conflicts between Moors and sub-Saharan Africans persisted. In 1989, terrible clashes erupted, claiming numerous victims on both sides. Mauritania and Senegal, which had maintained good diplomatic relations, closed their shared border. It would take until 1992 for it to reopen.

On July 20, 1991, Colonel Taya signed a new constitution promoting press freedom and permitting multipartyism. In 1992, newly elected President Maaouiya ould Taya won 62% of the vote in democratic elections. Mauritania's international diplomatic relations flourished, and the country appeared politically stable compared to its West African neighbors.

In 1999, Mauritania demonstrated support for Israel, ranking among only three Arab states to recognize Israel alongside Jordan and Egypt. This recent development stirred unrest among populations supporting the Palestinian cause.

That same July, Mauritania reinstated visa requirements for French citizens. Its distance from France and rapprochement with Israel caught U.S. attention, and America hastened to sign significant trade agreements.

Mauritania experienced new coups d'état in the 2000s.

In 2003, Saleh Ould Hanana's attempted seizure of power shook the nation. Several other attempts and social movements continued to destabilize the country until 2005, when Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall overthrew President Maaouiya ould Taya. His primary objective was to return the country to the path of genuine democracy and end totalitarian abuses.

In 2006, a referendum proposed several laws, including one limiting a head of state to two five-year terms and mandatory retirement at age 75. Authorities honored their promises when on March 25, 2007, Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi was elected President of Mauritania with 52.85% of votes. True to his commitments, Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall did not run again.

In April, the African Union readmitted Mauritania, temporarily excluded following the 2005 coup. Members of the moderate Islamist party joined the government for the first time in May 2008.